The Kurds are indigenous peoples living in the ancient Mesopotamian region, presently the Middle East area. Yet, with a population of roughly 30 million, the Kurdish tribes are the largest stateless nation in the world.
INTRODUCTION: WHO ARE THE KURDS?
The Kurds are the fourth-largest Middle Eastern ethnic and linguistic tribe. The Kurds have been residing in the mountains and plains of the ancient Mesopotamian region for ages.
Currently, the Mesopotamian region consists of south-eastern Turkey, north-eastern Syria, northern Iraq, north-western Iran and south-western Armenia. Therefore, most Kurds reside in Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria.
In the past, many invaders and conquerors have attacked the Kurdish region.
The list of the invaders included:
- Ancient Persians (2nd Century).
- Alexander the Great (4th Century).
- Muslim Arabs (7th Century).
- Seljuk Turks (11th Century).
- Mongols (13th Century).
- Medieval Persians such as the Safavids(15th Century).
- Ottoman Turks (16th Century).
- The Americans (Iraq’s Invasion in 2003).
However, the Kurds fled to the mountains for shelter to protect themselves from invaders. Thus, helping in the survival of their distinct ethnic group.
Furthermore, the traditional nomadic lifestyles and uninhabitable mountainous terrains aided the Kurds in evading the ravaging armies who would subject indigenous people to loot, rape and genocide.
Hence, giving origin to the famous Kurdish proverb, “Kurdun heval ninin bes ciya”, meaning “Kurds have no friends but the mountains”.
KURDS: A STATELESS NATION
According to some experts, there are more than 30 million Kurds in the Middle East.
Interestingly, if the Kurds living in the Middle East form an independent nation (Greater Kurdistan), then the total population of that nation will be larger than Poland, Holland, or Australia.
Similarly, in a geographical context, the total area of the Kurdish nation (Greater Kurdistan) will be larger than that of Bangladesh, Bulgaria or Austria.
To point out, Greater Kurdistan is an envisioned nation. The majority Kurdish population will form the inhabitants of their homeland. Moreover, this nation will mainly focus on preserving and flourishing the Kurdish culture, language and tradition. Thus, making it a country with an independent Kurdish national identity.
Notably, the Kurdish population is scattered across four Middle East nations, i.e. Syria, Turkey, Iran and Iraq.
Given below is the distribution of the Kurds in the nations:
- 10-20% of Turkey’s population of 80 million.
- 10% of Iran’s population of 82 million.
- 7-10% of Syria’s population of 17 million.
- 15-23% of Iraq’s population of 37 million.
Therefore, making Kurds the largest ethnic group in the world, without a nation.
KURDS: THE DESCENDANTS OF MEDES
The Kurds consider themselves the descendants of the Medes, a 6th-century tribe.
To explain, the Median Empire was one of the first Iranian Kingdoms. In 728 B.C., Deioces founded Median Empire. The Kingdom was a confederation of tribes who were nomadic that occupied the Media region, presently west and northwest of present-day Iran.
The capital of the Median empire was Ecbatana, the modern Hamadan city of Iran.
Remarkably, the Kurds use the calendar, which begins with the conquest of Nineveh (an ancient city of the Assyrian Empire; modern-day Mosul, Iraq) by the Medes in 612 B.C.
Moreover, the calendar used by Kurds is more than 600 years and 1000 years older than the Gregorian and Islamic calendars, respectively. Likewise, the Kurdish calendar begins in March, during which Nowruz, their holiest festival, takes place.
As a result, many Kurds have demanded nationhood by claiming common descent from the Medians.
KURDS IN MEDIEVAL TIMES
In the Mid-10th century, Hasanawayh bin Husayn al Barzikani of the Hasanwayhid dynasty established the first real Kurdish principality. The geographic location of the principality was at the present-day Iranian border with northern Iraq. This rule lasted for 50 years.
However, later on, Muhammad bin Annaz invaded this principality. To point out, Annaz was the heir to the leadership of the Shadhanjan, another Kurdish tribe.
Regardless of the principalities, the Kurds remained distributed in the entire area of Iran, Iraq, and Turkey in medieval times.
TREATY OF ZUHAB: THE KURDS COMMUNITY SEPARATOR
Interestingly, the borders between the Persian and Ottoman Empires (the modern-day borders of Iraq and Turkey with Iran) remained unchanged since the Treaty of Zuhab or the Treaty of Qasr-e-Shirin (May 1639).
Before the Treaty of Zuhab, the Ottomans (successor state Turkey) and Safavids (modern-day Iran) signed the Treaty of Amasya in May 1555. As per the Treaty, Ottomans recognized the Safavids as a new religiopolitical sovereign entity in the region. Later, the Treaty of Zuhab endorsed the Treaty of Amasya.
To elaborate, the Treaty of Zuhab, signed between Ottomans and Safavids, ended 150 years of recurring wars between the two Empires. Furthermore, the Treaty established a boundary between the two Empires that remained unchanged in modern times.
As a result, the contiguous Kurdish territory got divided into two halves, and 70% of the Kurds came under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Sultan.
Surprisingly, even a millennium before (1000 years ago), the Byzantine and Persian (Sassanid) Empires shared the same boundary.
Due to this same border, the Kurds straddled between the Ottoman and Persian Empires. Thus, fighting against each other for their respective Kingdoms.
Sooner or later, the Kurds were unable to establish an independent state. But, they did manage to form a few autonomous principalities under the Ottoman Empire. However, the Ottomans dismantled these principalities by the mid-19th century. Therefore, these principalities could exist for only 300-400 years.
KURDISH EMIRATE: A DREAM?
The Kurdish principalities always had a geographical disadvantage. These Emirates where Kurds lived were along the borders of the great Persian and Turkish Empires. As a result, these Kurdish Emirates were always subordinate to the great Turkish and Persian Empires.
Also, the Kurds would enjoy autonomy only when they paid taxes and gave their allegiance to the Persian Shah or Turkish Sultan. Additionally, in the late 19th century, some Kurdish leaders maintained regional autonomy. But, the Persian and Ottoman Empires viewed the Kurds as bandits.
However, the Kurds tasted independence only when there was a weak ruler in Persia or Turkey. Otherwise, a strong Persian or Turkish ruler would douse the Kurdish entity.
For example, in the 19th century, a Kurdish Emirate named Soran arose in the area, presently Rawanduz, Iraqi Kurdistan. The Emirate established itself during the weak Ottoman rulers. But, later quickly subordinated to the Ottoman Empire and got dissolved within a decade.
In another instance, in 1880, Kurdish leader Sheikh Ubeydullah seized Iranian territory centred on Mahabad and Lake Urumiya by crossing the Ottoman Empire. However, he underestimated Persia’s Shah power, and within two years, the Persian Shah thwarted his rebellion.
Meanwhile, in the early 20th century, the Kurds were rural. Moreover, rather than focusing on ethnonationalism, the Kurds focused more on preserving their culture and religion.
Yet, the seed of Kurdish nationalism was slowly and steadily growing.
A KURDISH NATION: RAY OF HOPE AFTER WWI
Many Kurdish intellectuals feel that the Kurds almost got their homeland after World War I (1914-18).
To elaborate, the Allied forces were victorious in WWI, and the defeat of the Ottoman Empire during the War led to its disintegration.
After the War, the Allied Powers were struggling to divide the Ottoman Empire’s territory.
Therefore, the European powers decided to split the Anatolia region, which led to the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres in August 1920.
Interestingly, the British and French foreign officials and cartographers carved many countries from the Ottoman Empire —Jordan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, and Iraq—and many more formed later.
Under the Treaty of Sèvres, signed between the representatives of Allied forces and the Ottomans, the Europeans decided to:
- Keep some territories of the disintegrated Ottoman Empire.
- Create a greater Armenia.
- Create an independent Kurdistan.
- Notably, Europeans planned to give oil-rich Mosul to the Kurdish nation.
However, the Sykes-Picot Agreement and the Treaty of Lausanne shattered the dream of a united and independent Kurdish nation.
THE SKYES-PICOT AGREEMENT
The Sykes-Picot Agreement, also known as Asia Minor Agreement, was a secret treaty signed between Great Britain and France with the consent of Imperial Russia and Italy in May 1916.
The treaty was signed during WWI and was related to the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire.
To explain, in November 1915, negotiations began between both nations. The primary negotiators were Sir Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot, from Britain and France, respectively.
Besides, Sergey Dimitriyevich Sazonov was also present to represent Russia, as Russia was the third member of the Triple Entente.
According to the Treaty, Turkish-held Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, and Iraq would split into various French and British-administered areas.
Therefore, making Turkey only a rump state.
ATATURK’S RESISTANCE
However, in 1923, Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk negotiated with the European forces. Atatürk said that he would not compromise with the sovereignty of Turkey over the whole of Anatolia.
Interestingly, Anatolia included the regions where Kurds were highly populated.
To point out, Anatolia was under the control of the army of Atatürk during that time. As a result, this led to the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923).
KURDS DREAM BREAKER: THE TREATY OF LAUSANNE
In July 1923, representatives of Allied powers (Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Greece, Romania, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes)) and Turkey (the successor of the Ottoman Empire) signed a final Treaty of Peace after WWI, in Lausanne, Switzerland.
This treaty was known as the Treaty of Lausanne.
According to the Treaty:
- The Europeans recognized the official boundary of the modern state of Turkey.
- Turkey made no claims of its previous-held Arab provinces.
- Turkey recognized British possession of Cyprus and Italian possession of Dodecanese (a group of islands in the Aegean Sea).
- The European powers dropped their demand for the autonomy of the Turkish Kurdistan and Turks’ cession of the territory of Armenia.
- The Europeans abandoned claims over the areas under the influence of Turkey.
- The Europeans imposed no control over Turkey’s finance and armed forces.
- A declaration allowed open shipping between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea in the Turkish straits.
Consequently, the Treaty of Lausanne replaced the Treaty of Sèvres due to Turkish pressure.
Ultimately, the Treaty of Lausanne divided the Kurds among Syria, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, and Armenia.
Notably, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire led to the division of Kurds into different countries, due to which the Kurds were contiguous but were cut off from each other politically. With time, they developed their characteristics as per the region they resided.
BARZANJI’S REVOLT OF 1920s
Due to the Treaty of Lausanne, the Kurd leaders felt betrayed. Therefore, in May 1919, Mahmud Barzanji, a tribal Kurdish Sheikh, decided to lead the Kurds to an independence fight from British-occupied Iraq. But, this revolt was crushed in the same year by the Britishers.
However, he successfully led another revolt in 1922. As a result, in October 1922, he created an autonomous Kurdish entity centered in Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, known as the “Kingdom of Kurdistan”.
Although, this Empire was short-lived. In July 1924, the British forces subdued this Kurdish autonomous Empire. Thus, ending the self-rule.
But, due to this step, the hope for self-rule in the Mosul vilayet (one of three constituent Ottoman-era provinces in northern Iraq) also ended.
To point out, in 1921, the merger of three provinces of Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra, led to the birth of a nation named Iraq.
Generally speaking, the Iraqi Kurds missed the opportunity to create their nation during the wake of WWI, as their dream got snatched away from the Turkish nationalists and the nascent Iraqi Kingdom (The Hashemites) under the British.
POST-WWII: CHANCE FOR IRANIAN KURDS
The Iranian Kurds got their opportunity for an independent nation in World War II (1939-45).
To explain, during WWII, the British and Soviet troops invaded Iran to ensure a supply route for oil and ammunition to the Soviet army, fighting against the army of Nazi Germany.
In August 1941, the British forces captured southern Iran, whereas Soviet forces captured northern Iran (mainly the Iranian Azerbaijan region).
However, after the war, the Britishers left, but the Soviets remained in the Iranian Azerbaijan region. Thus, starting the era of the Cold War between the West and the Soviets.
RISE AND FALL OF MAHABAD REPUBLIC
During this Cold War phase, Moscow wanted to create pro-Soviet proxies against the West.
Meanwhile, seeing this opportunity, on Jan 22, 1946, several Kurdish intellectual groups led by Qazi Muhammad declared the Mahabad Republic in Iran. Although the entity ruled for one year, the Persian Ruler Reza Shah was able to rally forces behind him and re-establish central government control in the region.
Interestingly, one of the four generals serving the short-lived Republic was Mulla Mustafa Barzani, father of Masoud Barzani (Former president of the Iraqi Kurdistan government, the Kurdistan Regional Government).
In 1979, with the downfall of the Reza Shah (Pahlavi Dynasty) in Iran, Kurds again established autonomy but were unable to sustain resistance from the Islamic Republic.
Despite being short stints of Kurdish self-rule in Iran, this movement caught the imagination of the Kurdish nationalists across borders.
KRG: THE ONLY AUTONOMOUS GOVERNMENT
Significantly, only the Kurds residing in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI) have an autonomous Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG). The government was declared legally authorized under the 2005 Iraqi Constitution.
Therefore, giving the Iraqi Kurds an identity and legal rights in contrast to their counterparts living in different countries.
Notably, the KRG has legal jurisdiction over Iraq’s Erbil, Sulaymaniyah, and Dohuk provinces.
KRG AND IRAQI CONSTITUTION
The 2005 Iraqi Constitution officially recognized the KRG (Article 113; Section 1).
The Iraqi Constitution also encouraged the use of the Kurdish language, especially.
For example, Section 1 under Article 4 declares the Arabic and Kurdish languages as the two official languages of Iraq. Likewise, Section 3 of Article 4 allows the federal institutions and agencies in the Kurdistan region to use the Arabic and Kurdish languages.
ARTICLE 117: CRUCIAL ARTICLE FOR AUTONOMOUS KRG
Article 117 of the Iraqi Constitution deals with the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG).
Given below are a few essential sections of Article 117:
- Section 1: This permits KRG to have its executive, legislative and judicial powers aside from those exclusive to the federal government. Thus, declaring KRG a semi-autonomous region under the Iraqi government.
- Section 3: This allows the distribution of an equitable share of national revenues to KRG.
- Section 4: Under this section, the KRG shall establish offices in the embassies and diplomatic missions to follow up on cultural, social, and developmental affairs.
- To point out, the KRG has representative offices in 13 countries (Australia, Austria, France, Germany, Iran, Italy, Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK, and the USA) and one representative office in the EU.
- Section 5: Under this, the KRG has permission to establish and organize its internal security forces, such as the police, security forces, and guards in the region.
KURDISH TRIBES
There are multiple tribes in Kurdish society. These tribes reside in different areas of separate countries.
Notably, tribal affiliations do matter in the widespread Kurdish society.
Given below are the names of a few major Kurdish tribes:
- The Hakkari tribe of Turkey.
- The Barzani and Hamawand of Iraq.
- The Jaff and Hawrami of Iraq and Iran.
- Mukri and Bani Ardalan tribes of Iran.
- The Kalhur tribe of Iraq.
- The Kalhur tribe is one of the largest among the Kurdish tribes. The origins of Kalhurs are in Iranian Kurdistan, and now they live in and around the Suleimani region of Iraqi Kurdistan.
KURDISH LANGUAGE
The Kurdish language is an Indo-Iranian language.
The Kurdish dialect is similar to the Persian (Farsi) dialect (widely spoken in neighboring Iran) and the Balochi dialect (spoken in the Balochistan province of Pakistan).
However, it is entirely different from the Arabic or Turkish dialects.
LINGUISTIC DIVIDE
Interestingly, along with political differences, there is also a linguistic divide between the Kurds.
The Kurdish language has many dialects, but there are four major Kurdish dialects:
- Kurmanji (Northern Kurds Dialect).
- Sorani (Central Kurds Dialect).
- Zaza-Gorani.
- Southern Kurdish.
Moreover, the Kurmanji and Sorani dialects split into multiple sub-dialects.
DIALECTS OF THE KURDS
The Kurdish dialects are as follows:
1. KURMANJI DIALECT:
Significantly, about 65% of all Kurds speak the Kurmanji dialect.
There are two major dialects of Kurmanji, i.e. the Northern Kurmanji and Southern Kurmanji.
The Kurds residing in Turkey speak Northern Kurmanji. Whereas, the Kurds living in the Bahdinan region (the northernmost part of Iraqi Kurdistan) and the Duhok region of Iraq, and Northern Syria speak Southern Kurmanji.
To point out, Southern Kurmanji is also known as Badinani, named after a 19th-century Emirate.
2. SORANI DIALECT (CENTRAL KURDISH):
Sorani is spoken in and around the cities of Erbil and Sulaimani districts in Iraqi Kurdistan (3-5 million speakers) and among Kurds residing in Iran (about 7 million speakers), especially amongst the Kurds inhabiting the west of Lake Urumiya in Iran.
There are many subdialects of Sorani, for example, Hawleri, Pishdari, Kerkuki, Khanaqini, Kushnawi, Mukri, Sulaimani, Bingirdi, Garrusi, Ardalani, Sanandaji, Warmawa, Garmiyani, Jafi, etc.
As a matter of fact, the linguistic split of Kurmanji and Sorani runs through the Great Zab river, which flows in the Iraqi Kurdistan.
3. ZAZA-GOGRANI DIALECT:
Zaza or Zazaki dialect is similar to the Caspian languages of Iran but different from Kurmanji and Sorani.
A Kurdish tribe named Alevis residing in Turkey speaks Zaza (2-3 million speakers).
4. SOTHERN KURDISH DIALECT:
Southern Kurdish, or Pehlewani, is spoken in the Ilam, Kordestan, and Kermanshah provinces of Iranian Kurdistan and in the South Khanaqin, Jalawla, and Mandali provinces of southern Iraqi Kurdistan.
To elaborate, Fayli Kurds of the Kermanshah Province of Iran and the Khanaqin region of Iraq speak Luri. Similarly, the Kalhur tribe speaks a dialect known as Kalhuri.
In short, both Luri and Kalhuri are subdialects of Southern Kurdish dialects.
Further, there are many more dialects of Southern Kurdish, such as Feyli, Laki, Kirmanshahi, Garrusi, Kolyai, Sanjabi, Bayray, Kordali, Zangana, etc.
KURDISH SCRIPT
Apart from the dialect, Kurds residing in different regions use different scripts.
For example, Turkish and Syrian Kurds use Latin-Turkish script.
In contrast, Irani and Iraqi Kurds use Cyrillic and Latin scripts. Also, they use the Arabic alphabet.
THE RELIGION OF KURDS
Islam is the most widely practiced religion among the Kurds.
Globally, the majority of the Kurd population are Sunni Muslims. But, the Kurds of Kermanshah, Iran, are Shia Muslims. Therefore, Shia Kurds make up a total of 10 percent of the entire Kurdish population.
Interestingly, many Kurds still adhere to Islamic heterodox and pre-Islamic religions such as Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, etc.
For instance, the Alevis Tribe (around 1 million) follow Alevism. To elaborate, the Alevis tribe residing in Turkey follows a theology combining the role of the Caliph Ali (Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law and the fourth caliph) with pre-Islamic beliefs.
Similarly, the Yezidi Kurds residing in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq (Nineveh and Dohuk districts) believe in Yezidism. To explain, Yezidism is a pre-Islamic faith mixing a reverence of angels with traces of pre-Islamic Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism.
Significantly, the population of Yazidi is divided into areas controlled by the Iraqi government, KRG, and IS or ISIS-L.
Likewise, the Kaka’i (Yarsan or Ahl-e Haqq) tribe are the followers of Yarsanism. The Yarsan tribe, living in mountain villages on the Iran-Iraq border, mix pre-Islamic beliefs with Shia Islam.
KURDS: ONE COMMUNITY, BUT WITH DIVISION
CULTURAL DIVISION: KURMANJI VS SORANI
Among the Kurds, the tribal alliance is a crucial factor. However, the importance of tribal relations is more evident in Kurmanji speakers, in contrast to Sorani speakers.
Notably, the Sorani speakers are the most intellectuals among all the Kurds. The primary reason behind this was the access to reading material in the Kurdish language.
To describe, it was possible to publish books, journals, and newspapers in the Kurdish language only in Iraq, although with few restrictions. Hence, giving the Sorani speakers access to reading material. But, in Turkey, there was a complete ban on this. As a result, the Kurmanji-speaking Kurds remained undeveloped.
Again, the Sorani-speaking Kurds residing in Iran and Iraq were more economically and culturally advanced, in contrast to their counterparts, the Kurmanji-speaking Kurds, living in Mountainous regions.
Surprisingly, both Soran and Kurmanj held an opinion of each other. To explain, the Soran consider Kurmanj primitive and orthodox in religious affairs, but they acknowledge their fighting prowess. Meanwhile, the Kurmanj often see the Soran as unmanly, unreliable, and culturally arrogant.
RELIGIOUS DIVISION: A NON-EXISTENTIAL FACTOR
Surprisingly, despite the cultural divide, political Islam could not have deep-cut roots in Kurdish society, nor did it play a role in Kurds’ identity formation, national movement, or political performance.
Mahir Aziz, a renowned writer, suggests that Islam was not the primary identity marker of the Kurds. He further said,
“Modern Kurdistan political culture is deeply rooted in national rather than religious identity.”
Aziz, M. (2011, P.10). The Kurds of Iraq.
Also, the Kurdish concept of Islam does have strong mystical overtones, as various ulemas of Kurds were in sync with Tariqat or the spiritual order.
In addition, the eminent scholar Martin Van Bruinessen described the relationship between Kurdish nationalism and Islam religion as strained and ambivalent.
He added,
“Many leading nationalists were irreligious or at least dissatisfied with the stronghold of mullahs and sheikhs on the people. It has, on the other hand, usually been the orthodox Muslims who formed the backbone of the Kurdish movement. In order to gain support for their nationalist objectives, secularist intellectuals have time and again had to reach an accommodation with religion.”
Martin Van Bruinessen
As a result, the overshadowing of religious elements by the Kurdish identity factor played a prominent role in the revival of Kurdish nationalist fervor.
EVOLUTION OF KURDISH NATIONALISM
In the 21st century, the Kurds have undergone a paradigm shift, especially with the aspiration of national revival and reclamation of Kurdish identity.
The main four factors that led to this revival were:
- Weakening of National governments:
- The fall of the central governments of some Middle East countries allowed the Kurdish nationalist leaders to aspire for a separate Kurdish nation. Earlier, these governments were responsible for the suppression of the Kurds.
- Impact of Media:
- The emergence of media aided in reviving the Kurdish language. Thus, promoting cross-border ties between the Kurds residing in the four regions of different countries.
- Role of Kurdish Diaspora:
- The Kurdish diaspora settled in the Western nations supported in energizing the Kurds in the formation of Kurdish identity. To emphasize, the Kurds lost their identity by straddling between the Persian and Ottoman Empires in the past.
- Access to Education:
- The spread of the education system, between various restrictions, enabled access to Kurdish culture, history, and heritage. Hence, helping in more cultural awareness among Kurds.
GREATER KURDISTAN: ASPIRATION OF THE KURDS
Consequently, this revival of Kurdish nationalism helped the Kurds to wish for an ‘Imagined community’ known as Greater Kurdistan (Kurdistan Mezin).
The imaginary state has four centers present in different countries.
The four centers of the states are:
1.) Bakur, in Northern Turkey.
The Turkish Kurds are the largest and most politicized community, with a population of approximately 16 million people.
2.) Rojhelat, in Eastern Iran.
The Kurds residing in Iran are the second-largest community of Kurds, with a population of 8 million. However, the Iranian Kurds are the least politically strong.
3.) Bashur, in southern Iraq.
There are a total of 8 million Kurds citizens in Iraq. Surprisingly, the Iraqi Kurds are the most independent in opinion.
4.) Rojava, Eastern Syria.
The Syrian Kurds are around 2.5 million. Moreover, these Kurds are the newest to emerge as a political entity.
Interestingly, the representatives of the Iraqi Kurdish Rizari party presented the Map of Greater Kurdistan to the American Diplomatic delegation and the United Nations in Baghdad in 1945.
FALL OF FERTILE CRESCENT; RISE OF KURDS
The so-called Kurdish Spring appeared in the Middle East at the end of 2010.
The primary reason for the Spring was the political collapse of nation-states in Iraq and Syria (the Fertile Crescent), which led to the emergence of a non-state actor, including the Kurdish nationalists, who were seeking to fill the vacuum left by Central governments.
Therefore, these sudden events provided the Kurds with the following scenario:
- First, the backdrop for the crystallization of strong Kurdish nationalistic movements.
- Second, the strengthing of trans-border nationalism in four Kurds-dominated regions. Therefore, blurring the geographical borders between the Kurds.
- Third, the Kurdish ambition for state-building in Iraq and Syria resulted in the declaration of war for independence against these Central governments and ISIS.
However, the process of state-building and nation-building varied from region to region. The main factors that affected the state-building were:
- The economic and strategic importance of the Kurdish region.
- The relationship shared between a Kurdish state and non-state actors with the West.
- The balance of power between the Central governments and Kurdish actors.
- The cohesion of Kurdish nationalism in comparison to state nationalism.
- For instance, Kurdistan in Iraq is on one spectrum, whereas Kurdistan in Iran is on the other.
KURDISH SUPPRESSION
Meanwhile, in 1955, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq signed the Baghdad Pact. Later, Pakistan and Great Britain also joined this military alliance.
Notably, from 1959 this alliance was known as CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) after Iraq pulled off from the alliance.
Mainly, Turkey and Iraq used the alliance against Kurdish militants or the Peshmergas.
Moreover, the Central government of these nations used various mechanisms to contain the Kurds. Therefore, the pact was considered a tool to suppress the Kurds.
Additionally, the government sought to eliminate the three major dialects of Kurdish -Kurmanji, Sorani, and Zaza- through the so-called Linguicide done by the policies of Arabization, Turkification, and Persianization.
Hence, with a fear of independent Kurdish nationalism, the governments tried to suppress the Kurdish identity with such policies.
On the contrary, the Kurds have accused the Central governments of subduing their identity. Given below are a few accusations of the Kurds:
- Denial of Kurds’ identity by the Central governments.
- Rejection of the Kurds’ demand for a separate nation by the government.
- Creation of security belts around the Kurdish population by the government.
- Transfer of Kurdish Population to other countries.
- Introducing policies that were responsible for oppression and De-Kurdification.
Still, the Kurds managed to revive Kurdish nationalism by evoking the common myth of their descent from the ancient Kurds.
To point out, they usually traced this to Kurdish “common history, its golden age, heroes, and symbols”. As a result, the Kurds affirmed their support for Greater Kurdistan by using all these commonalities.
CONCLUSION: CAN KURDISH TRIBES CO-EXIST?
Despite drawing motivation from common history with no religious division, the Kurds still have to exhibit the coherence between Kurdish nationalism and State nationalism.
Surprisingly, the Kurds fighting for an independent nation are still battling with each other to gain an edge in the region.
For instance, the conflicts between Jalal Talabani’s Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) and Masoud Barzani’s Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) in Iraqi Kurdistan are intra-Kurdish clashes.
Although there are many factors behind this dispute, the foremost reason is the tribal overtones.
Although the Kurds in the four nations can unite via a common Kurdish nationalistic element, in reality, the non-state actors (usually political and military Kurdish groups) present in the four regions have different political equations with the other nations.
Like, Turkey supporting KDP and Iran backing PUK is a classic example. Thus, politically dividing the Kurds.
Generally speaking, the intra-Kurd conflicts and the regional Kurdish parties’ political affiliation with different Middle East nations dampens the theory of Greater Kurdistan.
Furthermore, these incidents deprive the Kurdish race of their homeland. Hence, making them the largest ethnic group in the world without a separate nation.