Sri Lanka, an island nation, lies in the Indian Ocean. The geographical location of Sri Lanka is very crucial as it lies at the maritime crossroads routes passing through the Indian Ocean.
INTRODUCTION
Geographically, Sri Lanka is a Southerly extension of the Deccan Plateau of India. Furthermore, Sri Lanka shares the continental shelf and some lithologic and geomorphic characteristics with Southern India. To point out, Palk Strait separates the island nation from Peninsular India.
In ancient times, Sri Lanka got exposed to various Asian civilizations due to its geographical location. Interestingly, the Arabs called it Serendib. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taphrobane. Later, the European mappers mentioned Sri Lanka as Ceylon. Notably, Ceylon was the official name till 1972. However, in 1972, it officially became Sri Lanka.
HISTORY OF SRI LANKA
Since ancient times, proximity to the Indian subcontinent promoted close cultural interaction between Sri Lanka and India. Historically and culturally, Sri Lanka possesses various ancient texts written by Buddhist scholars, such as the Dipavamsa (‘Island’s Chronicle’), probably compiled by Buddhist nuns in the 4th century AD. The chronicle was succeeded by the Mahavamsa (‘Great Chronicle’), and its continuation, called the Culavamsa (‘Little Chronicle’).
To elaborate, the Chronicles included the historical record of the establishment and growth of Sinhalese political power and Sri Lankan Buddhism. Notably, it is recorded in Mahavamsa that the early settlers in Sri Lanka were Indo-Aryans from North India. Although a contentious subject, the Chronicles mention that the Sri Lanka settlers had roots in West Bengal, Odisha, and North-Western parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains.
The most compelling evidence is visible in the Mahavamsa record. The record states that in the 5th Century BC, Prince Vijaya (whose ancestors were from Bengal) and his 700 followers landed on the West coast near Puttalam, located in North-West Sri Lanka.
Looking back into history, many Non-Sinhalese rulers like, Pandyas and Kalingas ruled over Sri Lanka. The rule was a result of dynastic marriages with many South Indian dynasties. Magha and Nissankmalla are the names of a few Kalinga rulers.
In the context of the historical relationship between Sri Lanka and Southern India, the famous Sri Lankan Scholar E.F.C Ludowyk states:
“More often than not… it(Sri Lanka)found itself drawn into the wars of the South Indian kingdoms, either in self-defence or in alliance with one or other of the warring princes.”
The Modern History of Ceylon, 1966, p. 51.
ADVENT OF BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA
The advent of Buddhism in Sri Lanka links to the Indian Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire. In the 3rd Century BC, Ashoka sent his son, Prince Mahendra(Mahinda), accompanied by Buddhist monks on a mission to Sri Lanka. In 247 BC, They met with the Sinhalese King, Tissa, and gave him sermons on Buddhism. Thus, bringing the king under the Buddhist fold.
Subsequently, King Tissa invited Mahinda and the Buddhist missionaries to the city of Anuradhapura. In the city park of Mahamegha, the Missionaries first preached to the royal family. And later, preached to ordinary people.
Indeed, many people embraced Buddhism as their new religion and joined the Buddhist Sangha(community of monks).
Later, the daughter of Emperor Ashoka, Princess Sangamitra, was sent on a mission to the island nation to spread Buddhism.
THE ETHNIC GROUPS IN SRI LANKA
The Sinhalese are the largest ethnic group in Sri Lanka. The word Sinhalese means “Lion Race”. Furthermore, Sinhalese constitute 75% of the total population. Interestingly, as per records, their ancestors might have come from Northern India, notably in the 5th century BCE.
The Island nation has 3 major Ethnic groups. Below are the details:
- Sinhalese – constitute 75% of the population.
- Follow Buddhism and speak Sinhala.
- Sinhalese reside in the country’s Southern, Western, Central, and North-Central parts.
- Tamils – constitute 15% of the population.
- Tamil populations include Sri Lankan Tamils (long-settled descendants) and Indian Tamils (recent descents brought under British rule).
- Follow Hinduism and speak Tamil.
- The concentration of Sri Lankan Tamils lies in the Jaffna Peninsula and the adjacent districts of Northern Sri Lanka. Whereas the population of the Indian Tamils mainly live in the Central Highlands.
- Muslims – constitute 10% of the population.
- The advent of Islam can be linked to Arab traders back in the 7th Century BC when they married and settled in Sri Lanka.
- Muslims are highly diverse. The Muslim community includes Moors, Malays, Bohras, Khojas and Memons.
- Tamil-speaking Moors are the highest in number (9%). Notably, the Moors have their ancestral link to South India.
- The Muslim population are present in the Eastern part of the country. Furthermore, areas with high Muslim populations include Colombo, Kandy, Puttalam, and Gampaha.
- Christians – constitute 1% of the population.
- In 1505, The advent of Portuguese Colonialism brought Christianity into the island nation.
SINHALA: THE LANGUAGE
The word Sinhala means the “Lions’ abode”. The Sinhala language is one of the two official languages of Sri Lanka, the other being Tamil. The Sinhala language belongs to the family of Indo-Aryan languages. Significantly, Pali, the language of Sri Lankan Buddhists, influences Sinhala. Although, it has a considerable number of Dravidian words, mainly Tamil.
POLITICAL HISTORY: THE TURMOIL
THE SINHALESE-TAMIL HOSTILITY
Sri Lanka got independence from the Britishers in 1948. The Sinhalese community were the major ethnic group (75%) of Sri Lanka, followed by Tamils (15%). Surprisingly, during the colonial period, i.e. the 1930s, the Sinhalese nationalist elites had few concerns.
The concerns were:
- Firstly, the Sinhalese elites resented British favouritism towards the Tamils.
- Secondly, the Nationalists wanted to give importance to the Sinhalese peasantry and land reforms.
- Thirdly, they were upset by the trade union’s base of Tamil plantation workers and their support for left-leaning political parties.
- Lastly, they wanted to categorize the Up-country Tamils (Indian-origin Tamil plantation workers).
To point out, in 1948, the year of independence, the first sign of discrimination towards Tamils was the disenfranchisement of the Up-country Tamils. (Disenfranchisement means denial of the right to vote.)
Thus, this Disenfranchisement policy led to the intrusion of large numbers of Up-Country Tamils into the Indian territory.
Significantly, keeping this in mind, two treaties were signed between the then Prime Ministers of Sri Lanka and India, Sirimavo Bandaranaike and Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964) and Sirimavo and Indira Gandhi (1974).
As a result, 3.75 lakh Tamils became Sri Lankan citizens, and 6 lakh Tamils became Indian citizens. However, many Tamils preferred to stay on the Island and did not choose Indian nationality.
In Fact, In 1988, a total of 1.5 lakh Tamils were stateless in Sri Lanka. Notably, In 2003, The Sri Lankan Government gave citizenship to all the stateless Tamils residing in Sri Lanka under The Grant of Citizenship to Persons of Indian Origin Act No.35 of 2003.
INTRODUCTION OF NEW CONSTITUTION
In 1972, Sri Lanka adopted a new Constitution. To explain, the new Constitution had three significant changes:
- Firstly, Buddhism was announced as the state religion.
- Secondly, Sinhala was made the official language.
- Lastly, the country was renamed from Ceylon to Sri Lanka.
The new Constitution was considered the second sign of discrimination toward ethnic Tamils. Hence, it widened the gap between Sinhalese and Tamils. However, the 1983 Tamil-Sinhalese riots were the main turning point in Sri Lankan political history.
The major ethnic group, the Sinhalese, strived to protect and promote the Buddhist religion and the Sinhala language. In contrast, the second-largest ethnic community, the Tamils, desire to protect and preserve Dravidian cultural identity resulted in the legitimate aspiration of Tamils.
Throughout Sri Lankan history, the idea of distinctness has always prevailed as a part of Sri Lankan identity. But still, Sri Lankans cannot liberate themselves from the cultural connections with India, especially with Southern India. This view of otherness caused fear and anxiety in the elite Sri Lankan Buddhists. Thus, resulting in the cause of ideological conflict between Tamils and Sinhalese.
Ultimately, after the 1950s, the Sinhalese-Tamil ethnic divide began to widen. Consequently, the Sri Lankan Buddhists feared a possible invasion of Sri Lanka by South India.
In the words of writer Nira Wickramasinghe,
“At times India was the non-west and looked upon as the mother country by Sinhalese…At other times, when cultural symbols were more prominent, and nationalism was the preserve of the Sinhalese community, pride of place was given to North India. All those who came later from South India were considered aliens.”
Sri Lanka in the Modern Age, 2006, p. 122.
SRI LANKAN CIVIL WAR: A TIMELINE
- 1970 – The rise of terrorism in Sri Lanka with the formation of the Tamil Students Movement.
- A Militant student body formed to protest against the government’s plan to limit access of Tamil students to Sri Lankan universities.
- 1972 – Sri Lanka Passes a new Constitution. The new constitution made Buddhism as country’s primary religion, Sinhalese was again declared the official language, and the country was renamed Sri Lanka, from Ceylon.
- The Tamil united liberation front considers the New Constitution as anti-Tamil. Thus, causing an escalation of violence in Jaffna(Northern Sri Lanka).
- 1976 – Velupillai Prabhakaran established LTTE (Liberation Tiger Tamil Eelam).
- LTTE was a guerrilla organization formed to establish a Tamil state(Eelam)in the Northern and Eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
- To explain, The LTTE was one of the most sophisticated militant groups and tightly organized.
- The LTTE was the only terrorist group in the world to have its military. Meaning its own Infantry, Sea Wing and Air Force.
- Surprisingly, at its peak, LTTE controlled over 15000 square kilometres (that is 1/4th of the territory of Sri Lanka; 65,332 Square kilometres).
- To fund its operations in Sri Lanka, LTTE used to conduct bank robberies, indulge in drug smuggling, and money extortion from Sri Lankan Tamils. Notably, they also received support from Tamils residing in foreign countries.
- 1983 – In July, nationwide clashes and riots broke out between Sinhalese and Tamils. The clashes left 3000 Tamils dead. And around 1,50,000 Tamils were displaced.
- On the negative side, the 1983 Sinhalese-Tamil riots marked a new beginning of the LTTE-Sri Lankan Government conflict.
FIGHT FOR JAFFNA
- 1985 – LTTE was in control of most of the Jaffna province in Northern Sri Lanka.
- 1987 – Prabhakaran eliminated its rival Tamil militant groups.
- The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) announced taking over the civil administration of the Jaffna peninsula.
- In July, India sent 80,000 strong IPKF(Indian Peace Keeping Force) to Sri Lanka. The aim was to enforce a ceasefire between Sri Lanka and Tamil rebels and disarmament of the LTTE and other militant groups.
- However, the forces sent for a peacekeeping mission started fighting with the LTTE. As a result, there was a series of conflicts between Indian troops and Tamil Tigers for the capturing-recapturing of Jaffna.
- In the process, Indian lost 1200 soldiers. Additionally, 400 Tamil tigers along with 1000 civilians got killed.
- 1990– The withdrawal of IPKF resulted in several guerrilla operations and terrorist attacks by LTTE on the Sri Lanka government troops and establishment.
- 1992 – On May 21, LTTE trained suicide bomber killed Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi while campaigning in Tamil Nadu.
- 1993 – On May 1, The Tamil rebels assassinated Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa.
- 1996 – The Tamil Tigers committed a suicide attack on the Central Bank of Colombo that killed 100 people.
- 2001 – Tamil rebels attacked Colombo International Airport. Hence, destroying 11 Sri Lankan Airlines aircraft(Sri Lankan national Airlines).
- 2002 – On September 4, The Sri Lankan Government lifted the ban on the LTTE.
- On September 15, The Sri Lankan government officials and LTTE representatives began negotiations in Sattahip, Thailand.
- Norway brokered a ceasefire agreement between LTTE and Sri Lankan government officials.
- 2005 – Tamil rebels violates the 2002 ceasefire and kills Sri Lankan troops and sailor.
- To point out, Between 2005-2006, 53 soldiers and sailors got killed.
2005: PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS AND EELAM WAR IV
- 2005 – In November, the victory of Mahinda Rajapaksa in the Sri Lankan Presidential Elections.
- Rajapaksa, considered to be a staunch anti-LTTE, formed a political alliance with the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) with the radical Marxist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP, Peoples Liberation Front) and the nationalist Jathika Hela Urumaya (JHU, National Heritage Party) controlled by Buddhist monks and some Muslim parliamentarians.
- 2007 – Significantly, the Sri Lankan Government launched a full-scale military action against LTTE. The battle was known as Eelam war IV.
- In July, The Sri Lankan army seized the Eastern part of the country. In the following months, Sri Lankan troops captured the strongholds of the LTTE.
- 2009 – The Sri Lankan forces captured, Kilinochchi. The city was the administrative centre of the LTTE.
- In April, the Sri Lankan forces cornered the LTTE rebel in a small area on the North-Eastern coast of Sri Lanka. In May, the army launched the final offensive. Thus, killing the LTTE leader, Prabhakaran. Furthermore, the forces captured the Tamil rebels’ last stronghold.
- From 2005-to 2009, the conflict resulted in the killing of 28,000 individuals. To point out, around 6,261 Sri Lankan soldiers and 22,000 Tamil rebels got killed.
- The Government cracked down on all Tamil news sources. Similarly, It denied access to journalists to the conflict zone.
INDIA: ROLE AND PERCEPTION
India prevented meddling in other countries’ ethnic conflicts. Nevertheless, the Incidence of the July’83 Sinhalese-Tamil riots drew the attention of the Indian Government.
As per reports, the Indian External Intelligence agency RAW helped the LTTE with arms and training. However, in the 1980s, RAW withdrew its support after observing a spike in LTTE terrorist activities, coupled with its support growing in the separatist groups of Tamil Nadu.
Moreover, India had its own domestic and international concerns.
Domestically, India feared that the successful separation of the Northern and Eastern Tamil provinces of Sri Lanka by LTTE (Sri Lanka-based Tamil separatist group)would spur a similar agitation in the Southern state of India, Tamil Nadu. Furthermore, the constant influx of refugees from Sri Lanka into the Southern coast of India was creating a law and order situation for India.
Equally important, the local leaders of Tamil Nadu were requesting the Central Government to intervene to prevent the oppression of the Sri Lankan-Tamil minority.
Internationally, Sri Lanka’s request for military and intelligence assistance from other nations such as the US, China, Pakistan, the UK, and Israel was a key concern for India. The request was challenging India’s security aspirations in the Indian Ocean.
In May 1987, the Sri Lankan army planned to launch “Operation Liberation“. Surprisingly, the Indian Air Force crossed Sri Lankan airspace and dropped 22 tonnes of relief supplies in the Jaffna peninsula.
The Indian officials said, “that the action taken was to prevent external influence that can be dangerous for regional security and peace.”
Thus, India wanted to maintain its dominance in the Indian Ocean Region.
INDIA’S DILEMMA
Generally speaking, India wanted to maintain a balancing act between Sri Lanka and the Tamil Nadu lobby.
Therefore, to appease the Tamil Nadu lobby, India raised the issue of Sri Lankan human rights violations and injustice to the Tamil community on various international forums.
In Contrast, India sent 80,000 IPKF soldiers to Sri Lanka and supported the Sri Lankan Government’s motive to protect its territorial integrity.
The primary motive behind the measures was to prevent the alienation of Colombo.
To emphasize, Delhi was aware that the alienation of Colombo could hurt its geopolitical interests in the Indian Ocean Region.