INTRODUCTION
Kosovo, a self-declared independent country, lies in the Balkan region of Europe. The name Kosovo means the〝Field of Blackbirds〞, deriving from a Serbian place. The capital of Kosovo is Pristina, which is its largest city as well as the administrative centre.
In February 2008, Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia. The official website of the Kosovo Foreign Ministry states that 115 sovereign Nations (UN members) have given its recognition.
A few nations acknowledging Kosovo are the USA, Australia, Japan, 22 European Union countries, etc.
However, Russia, China, Serbia, and 5 European Union members (Spain, Slovakia, Greece, Cyprus and Romania) do not recognize Kosovo’s statehood.
GEOGRAPHY OF KOSOVO
Geographically, Kosovo is a landlocked country which shares its borders with Albania, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro.
To point out, the total length of border Kosovo shares with other countries is:
- Serbia – 352 km
- Macedonia – 159 km
- Albania – 112 km
- Montenegro – 79 km
Notably, mountains encircle Kosovo.
To elaborate, the Sharr Mountains (Šar Mountains) surround its Southeast border, which is close to Macedonia.
The Kopaonik mountains surround its North. On its Southwest border lies Albania and Montenegro, which are also rocky and mountainous.
ETHNICITY AND LANGUAGE IN KOSOVO
Kosovo has a total population of approximately 2 million people.
Kosovo’s population consists of approximately 92% Albanians and 6% Serbs. The remaining 1% are Turks, Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), Roma, Goran (Slavic Muslim ethnic group) and Montenegrins.
The Kosovar Albanians are Muslim and Albanian speakers. Whereas the ethnic Serbs, the largest minority group of Kosovo, are predominately orthodox Christians and speak Serbian.
The ethnic Serbs reside in Northern Kosovo, particularly in the Mitrovicë (Mitrovica) district. Moreover, many Serbs also live around the city, Shtërpcë (Štrpce), present near the North Macedonian border.
Furthermore, the two official languages of Kosovo are Albanian and Serbian.
HISTORY OF KOSOVO REGION
4th CENTURY B.C.
Contemporary Kosovo was present on the eastern side of the Illyria Kingdom, bordering the Thrace region.
(Present-day nations forming the Illyrian Empire). Source: Britannica
In the ancient past, Kosovo was called, Dardania. Further, it was a part of the Roman province of Moesia.
The Thraco-Illryian tribe of Dardania inhabited the modern-day Kosovo region.
4-5th CENTURY B.C.
During the late Middle Ages, most of the Balkan area shared its borders with the Byzantine Empire.
6th CENTURY B.C.
During this century, South Slav peoples, including the Serbs, settled throughout this region.
However, in 850 B.C., the Byzantine Empire captured the Balkan region. Also, the Byzantine Emperor Basil II reasserted control over the Balkans.
As a result, migration took place in the Balkan region after the 6-7th centuries B.C.
RULE OF NEMANJIĆ DYNASTY (12th-14th CENTURY)
12th CENTURY B.C.
In the later Middle Ages, with the waning of Byzantine power, the Kosovo region became the centre of the Serbian Kingdom under the Nemanjić Dynasty (1166-1371 A.D.).
Nemanjić or Nemanja was the ruling Serbian family from the 12th century till the mid-14th Century B.C.
Significantly, the Nemanjić dynasty developed the principality of Raška into a large Serbian Empire.
During this Nemanjić rule, the Kosovo region had numerous Serbian Orthodox sites, such as the famous Visoki Dečani Monastery (1327-35), currently present near Deçan, Kosovo. Interestingly, the Monastery had more than 1000 frescos.
THE GOLDEN PHASE OF THE SERBIAN EMPIRE: THE RULE OF STEFAN DUŠAN (REIGNED 1331-55)
The greatest of Nemanjić kings, Stefan Dušan, fought many wars with the Byzantines. He expanded the Serbian Kingdom by conquering Albania, Macedonia, and Montenegro.
Moreover, he drove farther South to conquer Epirus, Aetolia and Thessaly (in Greece).
During Dušan’s reign, he proclaimed the Serbian Empire and was crowned emperor in 1346.
Additionally, under his rule, numerous churches and monasteries were built. Likewise, there was immense development in areas such as agriculture, industry and trade.
In fact, during his rule, the promotion of a law code called, Zakonik was done. Therefore, the Serbs consider the Dušan rule as a Golden Age.
During the Serbian Empire (1346-71), Kosovo was a part of Serbia by the end of the 12th century.
Equally important, in the Medieval era, Kosovo was the administrative and cultural centre of the Serbian Kingdom.
Surprisingly, by available historical accounts, the population of Kosovo during this phase was mainly Serbs, and Albanians were in the minority.
However, in 1355, the weak leadership of Emperor Stefan Uroš V (son and Successor of Dušan) led to the dissolving of the Serbian Kingdom into fragments by rival Princes.
Furthermore, these Serbian principalities were forced to accept the suzerainty of the Byzantine Emperor.
1371: BATTLE OF MARITSA RIVER & THE FALL OF SERBIAN EMPIRE
In September 1371, the Serbian principalities were handed over defeat by the advancing forces of the Ottoman Turks.
Consequently, this victory of the Turks gave them access and complete control over southern Serbia and Macedonia.
1389: BATTLE OF KOSOVO POLJE
In the west of Pristina on 15 June 1389, the Christian Orthodox army and the Ottoman Turk forces fought the battle of Kosovo Polje.
The Serbian prince Lazar Hrebeljanović led the forces of Serbia and its allies forces (including Bosnians, Albanians, and others).
Ultimately, the Ottoman forces defeated the forces of the Serbs and their allies.
1455: FINAL CONQUEST OF SERBIA BY THE OTTOMANS
After 70 years of the battle of Kosovo, in 1455, the Ottoman Turks conquered Serbia.
By the mid-15th century, the Turks established direct rule over Serbia and Kosovo.
The Turks formed Kosovo into a vilayet and made Kosovo its territory. Moreover, the Ottomans ruled over Kosovo for 500 years.
With this, the Ottomans brought Islam into Kosovo. As a result, many Slavs adopted Islam. Furthermore, these converted Slavs served in the Ottoman army.
1690: CAPTURE OF BELGRADE BY THE AUSTRIANS
In 1690, the Austrians, led by Maximilian II Emanuel of Bavaria, conquered Belgrade (the present-Serbian capital).
Further, the Austrian forces advanced towards the south and conquered Macedonia.
Seeing this as an opportunity, the Serbs joined the Austrian forces and revolted against the Ottomans. However, the Ottomans stopped and defeated the Habsburg (Austrian) forces.
THE GREAT MIGRATION OF THE SERBS
Following the defeat of the Austrian forces, these forces started returning.
Surprisingly, along with the Austrian army, an estimated 30,000-40,000 ethnic Serbs, accompanied by their Patriarch (leading Bishops of the country), migrated towards Austria and Hungary and settled there.
1766: ABOLITION OF SERBIAN ORTHODOX PATRIARCH
The abolition of the Serbian Orthodox Patriarch at Peć (Pejë) led to the decline of the importance of Kosovo as a Serbian cultural centre.
1804: RISE OF THE SERBIAN KINGDOM
With an uprising against the Ottomans, Serbia again rose to establish its identity on the borders between the Ottoman and Habsburg (Austria-Hungary) Empires.
Hence, creating the Principality of Serbia.
1876-78: SERBO-TURKISH WAR
While supporting an uprising in Bosnia and Herzegovina against the Ottoman Turks, Serbia and Montenegro declared war against the Ottomans in December 1877.
Later, the Russian forces joined the conflict, thus leading to the Russian-Ottoman War (1877-88). The war led to the defeat of the Ottomans.
As a result, the Russians imposed a peace treaty named the Treaty of San Stefano (1878) on the Turks.
THE TREATY OF THE SAN STEFANO, MARCH 1878
The Treaty of San Stefano strived for new nations in the Balkans, focusing on ending Turkish control over the Balkans.
The treaty’s most important provisions were:
- The Recognition of the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania as a nation.
- Establishment of an independent Bulgarian principality. The principality included most of Macedonia.
- Furthermore, they extended to the Danube River from the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea.
Nevertheless, major European powers called a Congress in Berlin, which led to the signing of the Treaty of Berlin.
As a result, the Treaty of Berlin replaced the Treaty of San Stefano.
The Congress of Berlin, held from June 13–July 13, 1878, led to the signing of the Treaty of Berlin.
TREATY OF BERLIN, JULY 1878
The Treaty of Berlin had 64 articles. The key points were:
- Division of Bulgaria along the Balkan Mountain into two parts.
- The northern region of Bulgaria was declared an autonomous principality.
- Southern Bulgaria (eastern Rumelia) was under Ottoman rule but on the clause of administrative autonomy.
- Transfer of Macedonia to Turkey. Previously, under the Treaty of San Stefano, Macedonia was to be a part of Bulgaria.
- Territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania remained independent but were reduced. Bosnia and Herzegovina were in the zone of occupation by Austria-Hungary.
- Russia retained Kars and Ardahan-the mouth of the Danube, in the Caucasus.
- Declaration of Bakum as a free port for trade.
- Russia returned the Akhalkalaki Valley and the city of Bajazet to Turkey.
Thus, the territorial acquisitions of Russia and the Balkan states, which fought for their independence, were downsized.
In contrast, European powers like Austria-Hungary and England, who did not even participate in the war, were given some territorial acquisitions.
Interestingly, the key reason for the concessions made to Turkey at the Congress was the European diplomatic policy to curb the influence of Russia in the Balkans.
1878: RECOGNITION OF SERBIA
In 1878, Serbia was formally recognised at the Congress of Berlin.
With the treaty of Berlin:
- Serbia and Montenegro gained complete independence.
- Moreover, along with the independence Serbia made a territorial expansion by acquiring 10,000 Km (4,000 square miles) in its Southeastern region. Serbia controlled Pirot, Vranje, Niš and Toplica districts.
- Serbia got international recognition as a nation.
Therefore, Serbia, based in Belgrade in the north, grew in size and became independent from the Ottoman Turks.
1878: RISE IN ALBANIAN NATIONALISM
The birth of the League of Prizren in the vilayet of Kosova led to the rise of Albanian nationalism.
The League of Prizren called for autonomy from the Ottoman Empire for Albanian Speakers. Moreover, they resisted invasion from newly formed nations such as Serbia and Montenegro.
Significantly, in the 19th century, Prizren became a prominent Albanian culture and ethnic identity centre.
Even today, Prizren is one of the most influential cities in Kosovo.
1912-13: THE FIRST BALKAN WAR AND INVASION OF KOSOVO BY SERBIA & MONTENEGRO
In October 1912, the First Balkan War took place between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League Alliance—Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro, in the Balkan Peninsula.
EMERGENCE OF BALKAN LEAGUE
In March 1912, the Russian Empire gave Balkan states the patronage and guidance to form the Balkan League.
The motive behind the formation of the Balkan League was to take Macedonia away from the Ottomans, which was already involved in the war with Italy.
FIRST BALKAN WAR: JOINT ACTIONS OF BALKAN LEAGUE
SERBIAN-MONTENEGRIN ACTIONS
To explain, the Montenegrin army, followed by the Serbian forces, invaded the cities of Shkodër and Durrës, respectively, located in Northern Albania.
Further, the Montenegrin army conquered Western Kosovo (Metohija), and later, the Montenegrins captured Djakovica (Gjakovë) in November 1912.
Similarly, in Macedonia, the Serbian forces achieved victory in Kumanovo. Consequently, the Serbs captured Bitola and joined the Montenegrin forces, which entered Skopje.
To emphasize, the Serbian forces focused on the conquest of Kosovo.
BULGARIAN FORCES ACTION IN THE THRACE REGION
In the Thrace region, the Bulgarians defeated the Ottomans.
The Thrace region is a geographical area in Southeast Europe. This region is present in modern-day Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey. To point out, the Ottomans were advancing to the outskirts of Constantinople and were planning to siege Adrianople (Edirne).
Thus, the Bulgarian victory was crucial for the Balkan Alliance.
GREEK FORCES ACTION
The Greeks first captured Thessaloníki (Salonika) and then began to advance towards Ioannina city.
As a result, in May 1913, the Battle between the Ottomans and Balkan League members resulted in the victory of the Balkan League members.
Consequently, after victory, Serbia, and its allies-Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria, divided the remaining Balkan parts of the Ottoman Empire.
PARTITION OF KOSOVO AFTER THE FIRST BALKAN WAR
The victory of the Balkan forces led to the division of the majority of Kosovo regions between the Serbian and Montenegrin Kingdoms.
Under Ottoman rule, Kosovo was made a vilayet. Notably, the Kosova Vilayet was divided into four regions.
After the Balkan War, three regions went to the Serbian Kingdom: Zvečan, Kosovo and southern Metohija (Dukagjini region).
On the contrary, the fourth region went to the Montenegrin Kingdom, northern Metohija (Dukagjini region).
However, this split was short-lived, as the signing of the Treaty of London after the First Balkan War led to the division of Kosovo between Serbia, Montenegro and Albania.
1914-15: FIRST WORLD WAR
ASSASSINATION OF AUSTRIA’S ARCHDUKE FERDINAND & DECLARATION OF WAR ON SERBIA
Surprisingly, after the victory in the Balkan War, Serbia emerged as a more assertive power in Southeast Europe. Thus, the Austrians used to see Serbia as a threat to its multi-ethnic Empire.
However, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife by a Bosnian-Serb terrorist led to the Balkan crisis. Therefore, this eventually turned out to be a World War.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire suspected that the assassination of the Archduke and his wife had Serbian backing.
Thus, the Austro-Hungarian Empire decided to crush the Serbian threat forever. Hence, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, backed by the Germans, declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914.
Consequently, in 1915, the Serbian forces retreated from Kosovo and were chased out by the Austro-Hungarian forces.
1918: FORMATION OF KINGDOMS OF SERBS, CROATS, AND SLOVENIA POST-WORLD WAR I
In December 1918, Post-World War I, the defeat of the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire) led to the end of Austria-Hungary and Bulgarian occupation in the Balkan Peninsula.
The end of this occupation led to the emergence of a new state in the Balkan region. This new state was known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
The official language of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was Serbo-Croatian.
The new Kingdom consisted of the six Slavic groups —Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia (Macedonia was a part of it).
ABSORPTION OF KOSOVO BY SERBIA
The formation of a new Kingdom led to the absorption of Kosovo into the Kingdom of Serbs. With the integration, Belgrade aided the migration of Serb colonists into Kosovo. Moreover, the Serbian Army forced Kosovar Albanians to flee.
Moreover, in November 1918, the Kingdom of Serbia absorbed Montenegro and Western Kosovo (Metohija). Consequently, in December 1918, they were included in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
In October 1929, the name of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was changed to Yugoslavia, officially.
1941:SECOND WORLD WAR & INCORPORATION OF KOSOVO INTO GREATER ALBANIA
During the Second World War (1939-45), the Axis forces (Italians and Germans, Hungarian, and Bulgarian military units) declared war on Yugoslavia in June 1941.
As a result, the invading Italian forces thwarted the Serbian forces back from Kosovo, resulting in the capturing of Kosovo by Italy.
Moreover, after the capture, Kosovo was divided into three occupation zones.
- The First zone was with Italy.
- The First zone was to be a part of the satellite Kingdom of Albania or Greater Albania. The Italian King was the head of the state of this Kingdom of Albania.
- The Second zone was with Germans.
- The Third zone was with the Bulgarians. Notably, the Eastern Kosovo region was under the control of the Bulgarians.
1944: DEFEAT OF AXIS POWERS AND SERBIAN DOMINANCE OVER KOSOVO
Nevertheless, with the defeat of Axis forces in the Second World War, the Axis forces began retreating from Kosovo.
Thus, Kosovar Albanians desiring unification with Albania, began revolting. However, the Serbian unit under the Yugoslav forces crushed this revolt by launching an invasion of Kosovo in September 1944.
Surprisingly, in 1945, the KosMet Regional People’s Assembly (Kosmet abbreviation of Kosovo and Metohija) passed a resolution leading to the imposition of Martial Law in Kosovo.
Thus, the imposition of martial law gave the status of an Autonomous region (later Autonomous Province) to Kosovo under the Kingdom of Serbia.
Hence, this Martial law officially led to the absorption of Kosovo into Serbia.
THE AMBITION OF THE BALKAN NATIONS FOR KOSOVO’S CONQUEST
SERBIAN AMBITION
Since 1844, the inclusion of Kosovo into Serbia has been the national ambition of the Serbians. Its motive was not only to make Kosovo a part of Serbia just for the cause of national sentiments. But, it also aimed to use Kosovo for geostrategic advantage.
Notably, the unification of Kosovo with Serbia would have given it territorial access to the Mediterranean Sea.
Furthermore, the Serbian aspirations were to annex the Northern part of Albania and its seaport located in Durrës. The annexation of this would have made Serbian a maritime nation and a Balkan power.
MONTENEGRIN AMBITION
The Montenegrins were aiming to acquire Western Kosovo (Metohija). In the context of Montenegro, the conquest of Shkodër (Now in Albania), and the fertile lands of the Bojana River, would have given a territorial expansion to Montenegro.
BULGARIAN AND ALBANIAN AMBITIONS
Similarly, the Bulgarians aimed to gain control over Eastern Kosovo.
Meanwhile, in 1878, the League of Prizren adopted the Albanian national project in Kosovo. Its purpose was the inclusion of Kosovo in the autonomous Albanian entity/principality within the Ottoman Empire.
CONCLUSION: DEMOGRAPHIC AND RELIGIOUS DIVIDE IN KOSOVO
The conquest of Kosovo by the Ottomans brought Islam to the country. The Kosovar Albanians adopted Islam. Interestingly, the adoption of Islam by the Kosovar Albanians led to the granting of favours to the Ottomans. Furthermore, the Turks used these Kosovar Albanians to suppress the ethnic Serbian revolts.
On the contrary, with the rule of Ottomans in Kosovo, centuries later, many significant portions of Orthodox Serbs residing in Kosovo took the route of emigration northward and westward to other regions of various Kingdoms like Croatia, Hungary, and Austria. Meanwhile, some ethnic Serbs converted to Islam.
Due to this emigration of Serbs to other Kingdoms, the Albanians came to the fertile plains of Kosovo and began residing there. Thus, the 500 years of Ottoman rule led to the alteration of the demographic and ethical composition of the Kosovo region.
Additionally, this change in the demographic composition gave rise to an ethical, cultural, and religious divide between the ethnic Serbs and Kosovar Albanians.
This divide further led to the competition for land, resources and other interests between the two ethical communities, which before the Ottoman rule, coexisted peacefully.
ETHNIC SERBS-KOSOVAR ALBANIANS CONFLICT
Notably, after the First Balkan War, the division of Kosovo between Serbia, Montenegro, and Albania gave the Serbians a national dream of Kosovo reunification with Serbia. Thus, using these national sentiments, the Serbian forces attacked Kosovo frequently.
However, these forceful actions by the Serbian Army made the ethnic Serbs of Kosovo feel like an act of liberation. On the other hand, the Kosovar Albanians took it as an act of conquest by a foreign power.
The primary reason behind these conflicting views was the demographic status of Kosovo. To point out, most of Kosovo’s population were Albanians rather than ethnic Serbs.
Therefore, the prevalence of anti-Serbians sentiment was very prominent within Kosovo.
Generally speaking, this centuries-old rift is still observable.
Important to realize that both communities (Ethnic Serbs and Kosovar Albanians) consider Kosovo as a symbol of pride and the right to claim in their own opinion, respectively.